In February, Jordanian forces killed five smugglers attempting to bring the drug Captagon over the Syria-Jordan border, shining a spotlight on the often overlooked consequences of the Captagon trade across the Middle East. While the humanitarian crises that long-running conflicts in the Middle East have produced tend to make the headlines, less documented is the persistent rise in drug trafficking in the region and its far-reaching consequences across borders. One key trend has been the rise in Captagon production and trafficking in recent years, which has its roots in the Syria conflict. In the past year, regional leaders have taken steps to try to resolve the Captagon crisis.

A Regional Crisis

Captagon was first produced and used in the 1960s to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, but it was later banned because it is highly addictive. Sometimes dubbed the “poor man’s cocaine,” Captagon in pill form is a combination of amphetamines and caffeine, bulked out with various fillers, retailing on the street at around $3 a pill. Independent experts have valued the global business at up to $57 billion annually.

Illegal production and smuggling of Captagon pills remain rife in the Middle East, with demand for the stimulant high among partygoers, students, and others in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and elsewhere.

Highly publicized raids have highlighted the size and scale of the problem, but they appear to be doing little to deter traffickers. On September 14, 2023, the Dubai Police seized approximately 80 million Captagon pills, valued at more than $1 billion, destined for the UAE, in the biggest-ever haul of the outlawed drug.

According to some experts, the largest supplies of Captagon are going to Saudi Arabia. In efforts to reduce imports, Saudi authorities have increased raids at key border crossings in recent years, resulting in high-profile, widely publicized seizures, especially at the Haditha border crossing. In January, more than 841,000 Captagon pills were seized by the Saudi Zakat, Tax and Customs Authority at this border crossing with Jordan, according to a Saudi Gazette report. In an operation in December 2023, more than 117,000 Captagon pills were found in a truck along with other contraband. The Haditha dry port is a border point on one of the most common routes used to import illegal drugs originating in Syria into the Gulf states through neighboring Jordan.

Syria as the Epicenter

Syria is believed to be the source of an estimated 80% of the world’s supply of Captagon pills, according to United Kingdom government data, with the surge in production rooted in the country’s 2011 uprisings. Reports indicate that Captagon production in Syria is not only widespread but has the tacit approval of the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, with the drug trade providing a financial lifeline to the regime at a time when sanctions, conflict, and political upheaval have left the Syrian economy decimated.

Unsurprisingly, the return of Syria to the regional fold after a 12-year suspension prompted heavy criticism from the United States and other Western governments, all of whom had wanted to see more progress toward a political solution to the Syrian civil war before negotiations moved forward. In addition, Syria’s Captagon trafficking has been a hot topic for the West, with the European Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom sanctioning Syrians connected to the trade, including members of the Assad family, prominent businesspeople, and militia leaders.

Conflict Fuels Drug Trade

The Middle East is no stranger to conflict and the repercussions that wars and instability bring with them, including drug trafficking. Countries in the region with historical involvement in drug trafficking share several common hallmarks that start out as internal issues but quickly spill over borders with grave consequences. High on this list are international sanctions, long-term conflicts, and political decentralization.

Illegal drug trafficking has long been associated with the region’s militant groups, including Lebanese Hezbollah. Lebanon witnessed a boom in its drug trade led by Hezbollah when the government’s authority was undermined in the 1990s and sporadically afterward due to political strife and conflict. The country made several unsuccessful attempts to deter Hezbollah from producing and exporting drugs, but political turmoil and tensions, alongside broader instability, fostered an ideal environment for the illicit drug trade.

In “The Middle East Drugs Bazaar,” Phillip Robins noted: “Every time the security situation deteriorated at the political center, such as in 2005 (the assassination of Rafiq Hariri), 2006 (Israel-Hezbollah conflict) and 2007 (insurgency of militant jihadist group Fatah al-Islam), the farmers in Beqaa were more likely to get away with growing illicit crops.”

Robins and other experts suggest that those involved in drug production and trafficking welcome regional instability, political tensions, and sporadic conflicts because they produce conditions that facilitate their operations and reduce the likelihood of them being apprehended.

Combatting Trafficking

The consequences for drug trafficking in the Middle East are severe, with hefty sentences including life in prison and the death penalty, in some countries. The fact remains, however, that illicit drug trafficking and use, including of Captagon pills, continue to be widespread in the Gulf. And, while successful raids have been given widespread coverage in regional media, easy access has been cited as a reason for Captagon’s popularity.

National and collaborative enforcement efforts to curb illegal drug smuggling in the region remain ongoing, such as a June 2023 joint operation between Oman and Saudi Arabia that led to the seizure of 6 million Captagon pills destined for land and seaports across the region.

Widely believed to be linked to these efforts was the move at the May 2023 Arab League summit to invite Syria to rejoin the organization. The return of displaced refugees took center stage at the summit in Saudi Arabia, with the drug trade not discussed publicly in any detail. However, according to media reports, Jordan stated Syria had signaled its commitment to addressing cross-border drug trafficking.

No Easy Solutions

There are undoubtedly concerns that, without a strategic, holistic approach to tackling drug trafficking, the readmission of Syria to the Arab League will make little headway in finding and implementing successful long-term solutions to the problem. Experts have long criticized current approaches, calling for drug policy reforms and a reconsideration of strategies they regard as having failed in their objectives.

In April 2023, Helen Clark, chair of the Global Commission on Drug Policy, described the war on drugs as “a complete failure” and “completely counterproductive.” “It has failed, and we need to try new approaches,” she told attendees at the International Harm Reduction Conference in Melbourne. “We’re not dealing with new issues here. We’re dealing with totally inappropriate and wrong ways of tackling them.”

Her comments mirror others made previously, including observations from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, in the paper “Organized Crime and Its Threat to Security: Tackling a Disturbing Consequence of Drug Control.” The organization acknowledged that one of the significant consequences of global drug control efforts had been the emergence of a “criminal black market of staggering proportions” that had the power to “destabilize society and governments.” It recommended a three-pronged policy change requiring: an integrated strategy; community resistance; and a shared commitment. Other organizations supporting a more holistic approach to the problem, meanwhile, call for strategies with an increased focus on initiatives ranging from noncustodial sentences for nonviolent drug offences to greater investment in rehabilitation.

Much has also been made of the need to take account of the principles of supply and demand – often overlooked during piecemeal, publicity-heavy drug seizures that are undoubtedly offset by new shipments, leading to restricted availability and higher street prices. Experts have long highlighted the disadvantages of tackling the issue from the supply side rather than the demand side.

Inevitably, there will be no quick fix to address the repercussions of drug trafficking on states neighboring Syria. However, regional leaders are hoping that bringing Syria back into the fold and gradually normalizing ties will provide a starting point for making headway on key issues, from the return of refugees to combating the Captagon trade and other illicit imports.